To assess the role of cAMP in the regulation of autophagy, we examined the effects of cAMP analogues and cAMP-elevating agents on freshly isolated rat hepatocytes, using electroinjected [3H]raffinose as an autophagy probe. Glucagon was found to stimulate, inhibit or have no effect on autophagy, depending on the inclusion of metabolites like pyruvate (which caused ATP depletion and autophagy suppression) and amino acids (a complete mixture that antagonized pyruvate) in the incubation medium. Inhibition was also observed with theophylline, a cAMP-elevating inhibitor of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases, and with the adenylyl cyclase activator deacetylforskolin. At low concentrations of deacetylforskolin, the inhibition could be abolished by amino acids. N6,2'-O-Dibutyryladenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (Bt2-cAMP) strongly inhibited both autophagic sequestration of [3H]raffinose and overall autophagic protein degradation; again, amino acids abolished the autophagy-inhibitory effect of low Bt2-cAMP concentrations. Several other cAMP analogues (8-thiomethyl-cAMP, N6-benzoyl-cAMP, (S)-5,6-dichloro-1-D-ribofuranosylbenzimidazole 3',5'-[thio]monophosphate, (S)-8-bromoadenosine 3',5'-[thio]monophosphate) inhibited autophagy as well. The effect of Bt2-cAMP was rapid, dose-dependent, reversible and did not require concomitant protein synthesis. Neither Bt2-cAMP nor deacetylforskolin reduced intracellular ATP levels or cell viability, ruling out inhibition of autophagy by non-specific cytotoxicity. The autophagy-inhibitory effect of Bt2-cAMP could be substantially antagonized (40-50%) by KT-5720, a specific inhibitor of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase A, and by the nonspecific protein kinase inhibitor K-252a. Somewhat surprisingly, KN-62 and KT-5926, allegedly specific inhibitors of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II and myosin light chain kinase, respectively, were also Bt2-cAMP-antagonistic. These results suggest that cAMP regulates the early, sequestrational step of hepatocytic autophagy by a highly conditional, dual mechanism, inhibition being predominant under most conditions in freshly isolated hepatocytes, whereas stimulation reportedly predominates in vivo. The effect of cAMP is probably mediated by protein kinase A, but other protein kinases would appear to participate in the regulation of autophagic sequestration as well.
